Written in Greek, this papyrus is a memorandum for a judicial listening to earlier than a Roman official within the province of Judea or Arabia within the reign of the Roman emperor Hadrian, after his go to to the area in 129/130 CE and earlier than the outbreak of the Bar Kokhba Revolt in 132. The papyrus comprises an off-the-cuff report of the listening to, which issues the prosecution of a lot of people, together with a sure Gadalias and Saulos, who’re accused of forging paperwork regarding the sale and manumission of slaves in an effort to circumvent the imperial fiscus (treasury managed by the emperor).
The papyrus in query was found within the Nineteen Fifties in one of many caves of Nahal Hever within the Judean Desert.
Initially misclassified as Nabatean, the doc remained unnoticed till its rediscovery in 2014 by Hebrew College’s Professor Hannah Cotton Paltiel.
Now dubbed Papyrus Cotton, the papyrus is greater than 133 strains lengthy, which makes it the longest Greek doc ever to be discovered within the Judean Desert.
Professor Cotton Paltiel and her colleagues from the Austrian Academy of Sciences, the College of Vienna and Hebrew College decided that the doc represents prosecutors’ notes for a trial earlier than Roman officers on the eve of the Bar Kokhba Revolt (132-136 CE), together with a quickly drafted transcript of the judicial listening to itself.
The language is vibrant and direct, with one prosecutor advising one other on the energy of varied items of proof and strategizing to anticipate objections.
“This papyrus is extraordinary as a result of it offers direct perception into trial preparations on this a part of the Roman Empire,” stated Dr. Anna Dolganov from the Austrian Academy of Sciences.
“That is the best-documented Roman court docket case from Judea aside from the trial of Jesus,” added Hebrew College’s Dr. Avner Ecker.
The papyrus particulars a case involving forgery, tax evasion, and the fraudulent sale and manumission of slaves within the Roman provinces of Judea and Arabia, roughly comparable to trendy Israel and Jordan.
The principle defendants, Gadalias and Saulos, stand accused of corrupt dealings.
Gadalias, the son of a notary and probably a Roman citizen, had a legal historical past involving violence, extortion, counterfeiting, and inciting rebel.
Saulos, his collaborator, orchestrated the fictional sale and manumission of slaves with out paying the requisite Roman taxes.
To hide their actions, the defendants cast paperwork.
“Forgery and tax fraud carried extreme penalties beneath Roman regulation, together with exhausting labor and even capital punishment,” Dr. Dolganov stated.
This legal case unfolded between two main Jewish uprisings towards Roman rule: the Jewish Diaspora Revolt (115-117 CE) and the Bar Kokhba Revolt (132-136 CE).
Notably, the textual content implicates Gadalias and Saulos in rebellious actions throughout Emperor Hadrian’s go to to the area (129/130 CE) and names Tineius Rufus, the governor of Judea when the Bar Kokhba Revolt started.
Within the wake of prior unrest, Roman authorities seemingly seen the defendants with suspicion, connecting their crimes to broader conspiracies towards the empire.
“Whether or not they had been certainly concerned in rebel stays an open query, however the insinuation speaks to the charged environment of the time,” Dr. Dolganov stated.
“The character of the crime raises questions, as releasing slaves doesn’t seem like a worthwhile enterprise mannequin,” Dr. Ecker stated.
“The enslaved people’ origins stay unclear, however the case might have concerned illicit human trafficking or the Jewish Biblical responsibility to redeem enslaved Jews.”
The papyrus gives new insights into Roman regulation within the Greek-speaking jap empire, referencing the governor of Judea’s assize tour and obligatory jury service.
“This doc exhibits that core Roman establishments documented in Egypt had been additionally carried out all through the empire,” Professor Mitthof stated.
“The papyrus additionally showcases the Roman state’s means to manage personal transactions even in distant areas.”
“Seemingly originating from a hideout cave within the Judean Desert throughout the Bar Kokhba Revolt, its cautious preservation stays a thriller, and the trial’s end result might have been interrupted by the rebel.”
The staff’s paper was revealed within the journal Tyche.
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Anna Dolganov et al. 2025. Forgery and Fiscal Fraud in Iudaea and Arabia on the Eve of the Bar Kokhba Revolt: Memorandum and Minutes of a Trial earlier than a Roman Official (P.Cotton). Tyche 38; doi: 10.25365/tyche-2023-38-5